![]() ![]() Researchers have proposed more comprehensive cognitive models of writing development (e.g., Graham, 2018 Hayes, 1996 Hayes & Flower, 1980 Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1986), but we decided to use the simple view of writing because it focuses on important aspects of writing skills that are relevant for teaching students with dyslexia. We use the model as a heuristic, meaning that it is useful as a basic framework for understanding the components of writing, but we do not use it as a comprehensive description of how writing occurs. The model includes skills in four overarching categories: transcription, executive functions, working memory, and text generation (see Figure 1). This theoretical model includes the subskills that are essential for the writing task and provides a framework for showing how those skills are interrelated. One way to characterize the skills involved in writing is to use the simple view of writing ( Berninger & Amtmann, 2003). Finally, we identify instructional strategies shown to be effective for improving writing skills (and related reading skills) of students with reading and writing disabilities.Ĭonceptual Framework: Simple View of Writing Next, we provide theory for why students with dyslexia may struggle with writing by presenting research and theory about some of the links among their reading and writing difficulties. ![]() ![]() To illustrate some of the writing difficulties students with dyslexia have, we then provide a case study of a student with dyslexia (Jordan) and discuss how some of his writing errors indicate difficulties related to reading challenges. First, we use the simple writing model to provide an overview of the skills needed for writing. The focus of this article is to address the various types of writing issues children with dyslexia may have and to provide information about research-based practices that can work toward remediation of these difficulties. The presence of reading difficulties complicates this task, especially if students have poor handwriting skills that make it even more difficult for them to read their own writing. ![]() Writers often need to read source materials before writing their own text and also need to read and reread their own writing to diagnose text problems, such as spelling errors, grammar errors, and disorganization ( Hayes, 1996). Second, reading is a subskill required throughout the writing process. Because the disability impacts the underlying process for both the reading and writing systems, the prevalence of writing difficulties for students with dyslexia is not unexpected. For example, dyslexia involves difficulties related to processing phonological information needed for decoding words, whereas writing requires encoding phonological information when writing words. First, reading and writing rely on related underlying processes ( Graham & Hebert, 2010, 2011). The writing difficulties of students with dyslexia can be partially attributed to their reading difficulties and can manifest in many ways in their writing, such as poor spelling, poor legibility, lack of diverse vocabulary, poor idea development, and/or lack of organization.ĭyslexia and writing difficulties co-occur for two overarching reasons. This is not surprising, as reading is theorized to be a central component of writing in some cognitive models of writing development (e.g., Graham, 2018 Hayes, 1996). Students with dyslexia often also have writing difficulties. ![]()
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